Across India, nearly 10 crore people—belonging to more than 700 officially recognized Scheduled Tribes—follow diverse systems of faith. These traditions are rooted in the worship of nature, ancestors, and community deities. They have no single holy book, no centralized priesthood, and no fixed temples. Instead, they live through rituals, oral narratives, seasonal festivals, and sacred landscapes such as groves, rivers, and hills.
Yet, despite this richness, Adivasi or tribal religions are often branded by outsiders as “superstition,” “blind belief,” or “primitive practices.” This label is not accidental. It has been shaped by colonial anthropology, missionary propaganda, state policies, and the dominance of organized religions. Understanding why tribal religion is dismissed as superstition reveals not only deep prejudice but also the struggles of India’s Indigenous people for dignity and recognition.
Colonial Roots of the Label
The British colonial administration in India was among the first to systematically classify tribal communities. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, colonial ethnographers described tribal belief systems as “animism.”
- Animism meant the worship of natural objects, animals, or spirits.
- Colonial officials considered it “primitive,” in contrast to “developed” religions like Christianity, Hinduism, or Islam.
- Missionary writings from the same period reinforced this stereotype, calling tribal rituals “pagan” or “heathen,” thus justifying conversion.
The colonial census, beginning in 1871, forced Adivasis into rigid religious categories. Many were counted as “Hindus” or “Others,” erasing the independent status of their faiths. The effect was long-lasting: even after independence, Indian bureaucracy retained this framework, treating tribal spirituality as less than religion.
Organized Religions vs. Tribal Religions
Most organized religions—Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism—are scriptural. They are based on holy texts, centralized authority, and a hierarchical priesthood. By contrast, tribal religions are oral traditions.
- Tribal faiths: Sacred groves, ancestor worship, seasonal festivals like Karam, Sarhul, or Maghe Parab.
- Worldview: Balance between humans, spirits, and nature.
- Authority: Collective rituals led by community elders, not institutional clergy.
This difference created a clash of definitions. Since tribal faiths lacked “holy books” or formal temples, outsiders failed to recognize them as full religions. Instead, they dismissed them as irrational or superstitious.
Hindu Assimilation and Marginalization
Hindu nationalism and religious orthodoxy have often sought to absorb Adivasi deities into the Hindu pantheon.
- Local deities such as Marang Buru or Dharti Aayo are often reinterpreted as forms of Shiva or Durga.
- Tribal festivals like Sarhul are portrayed as part of a “greater Hindu tradition.”
Practices that do not fit—such as spirit appeasement or animal sacrifice—are branded as “andhvishwas” (blind faith). The demand for a Sarna Dharma code—to recognize tribal religion as separate—arises precisely against this assimilation.
Missionary Influence
Christian missionaries played a crucial role in branding tribal religions as superstition. In the 19th and 20th centuries, missionaries in Chotanagpur, Northeast India, and central India described tribal rituals as:
- Worship of “evil spirits.”
- “Idolatry” and “witchcraft.”
- “Backward practices” that needed salvation through Christianity.
In regions like Khasi Hills (Meghalaya) and Nagaland, missionaries converted large sections of the population by portraying Indigenous practices as demonic. This rhetoric still influences how local societies view traditional religions.
The Indian State and Scientific Temper
After independence, India embraced the ideal of “scientific temper.” While progressive in intent, this often equated tribal practices with irrationality.
- Laws against witch-hunting and human sacrifice—important for protecting women and vulnerable groups—sometimes led to the blanket criminalization of tribal spiritual healing and rituals.
- The Indian Census still does not have a separate column for tribal religions. Adivasi people are usually counted as Hindus or “others.”
- States like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh have seen protests demanding recognition of Sarna Dharma, but governments hesitate, fearing political consequences.
Thus, the state has indirectly reinforced the notion that tribal religions are not legitimate faiths.
Media and Popular Culture
In Indian cinema, Adivasis are often portrayed as:
- “Jungle people” with drums, feathers, and primitive dances.
- Characters who practice witchcraft or bizarre rituals.
- Backward communities in need of “civilization.”
News media also frequently describe tribal rituals—such as animal sacrifices or forest festivals—as superstition without context. This popular imagery fuels stereotypes that Adivasis are irrational or anti-modern.
Struggles for Religious Recognition
Across India, different tribal communities are resisting this erasure.
- Sarna Dharma Movement (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha): Demand for a separate religion code in the Census.
- Santhal Religion (Sarna, Thakur Jiu): Recognition of their faith as distinct.
- Khasi Niamtre (Meghalaya): Revival of Indigenous Khasi faith against both Christianity and Hindu influence.
- Gondi Koyapunem (Central India): Organized movement for revival of Gond spiritual traditions.
These struggles highlight that tribal religions are not superstitions but living systems of belief deserving constitutional protection.
Knowledge, Power, and Definition of Religion
The question arises: Who defines what is “religion”?
- Elites and scholars often impose definitions based on scriptural religions.
- The state regulates religious categories for census, law, and policy.
- Religious leaders from dominant faiths dismiss tribal practices to expand their own influence.
Tribal communities, with limited representation, are left unheard. Thus, labeling their religion as superstition is not a neutral fact—it is an exercise of power and control.
Case Studies
a) Santhal Hul (1855–56)
The Santhal rebellion was not just against British exploitation but also against missionaries and Hindu landlords who undermined Santhal religion. The revolt invoked Thakur Jiu, the supreme Santhal deity, as a spiritual rallying point.
b) Birsa Munda’s Ulgulan (1899–1900)
Birsa Munda, a charismatic tribal leader, led a massive uprising. His movement—called Birsait—was a religious assertion against both Hindu assimilation and Christian conversion. Colonial records called it “fanaticism,” but it was a fight for religious dignity.
c) Khasi Niamtre (Meghalaya)
In Meghalaya, Khasi elders revived their Indigenous religion, Niamtre, after missionaries dismissed their faith as superstition. Today, Niamtre is recognized as a cultural identity marker, resisting both Hindu and Christian dominance.
d) Sarna Code Movement (Jharkhand, 2020)
Lakhs of Adivasis marched demanding a separate Sarna Dharma code. Without recognition, they are forced to register as Hindus or “others.” This erases their spiritual identity and legitimizes the view that their religion is merely superstition.
11. Deconstructing the Label of Superstition
Calling tribal religion “superstition” ignores its profound values:
- Ecological wisdom: Sacred groves and rivers preserve biodiversity.
- Community ethics: Festivals strengthen social solidarity.
- Spiritual philosophy: Balance between humans, spirits, and environment.
What outsiders dismiss as “superstition” is often traditional ecological knowledge. For instance, rituals around seed preservation or forest conservation ensure sustainability.
Thus, tribal religions are not irrational; they are alternative philosophies of life.
Conclusion
The dismissal of tribal religion as superstition is the product of colonial categorization, missionary propaganda, Hindu assimilation, and state neglect. It reflects power relations rather than truth.
Tribal faiths are not dying remnants of the past; they are living systems of meaning and survival. They teach respect for nature, ancestors, and community—values urgently needed in a time of ecological crisis.
Recognizing tribal religions as legitimate faiths is not only a question of cultural dignity but also of democracy and pluralism in India. Until then, the label of “superstition” will remain a form of marginalization and erasure.
